Picornavirus Life Cycle and Processing of Proteins

Picornavirus Life Cycle and Processing of Proteins Introduction Picornaviruses are small positive strand RNA viruses with single stranded genomic RNA capable of causing various diseases in humans (Porter, 1993). The picornavirus RNA genome has 3 poly(A) tail and a virus encoded particle Vpg at the 5 end. Unlike other RNA genome viruses, picornavirus doesnt contain a 7- methyl guanosine cap at the 5end intead they contain VPg a viral protein linked at the 5 end of the genome (Bedard and Semler, 2004). IRES (Internal ribosome entry site) is a clover leaf secondary structure at the 5 non-coding region and in the polypeptide there is a 3 noncoding region which contains the poly(A) tract required for the synthesis of minus RNA strand for RNA replication and translation. The minus strand RNa increases the efficiency of RNA replication and translation. The structural and non structural proteins are found at the polyprotein and the polyprotein is divided into three regions such as P1, P2, P3 where P1 contains the structural proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP 4) required for capsid formation and the non structural proteins P2 and P3 are required for replication and membrane rearrangement. The P2 and P3 region contains proteinase 3C and viral RNA dependent polymerase 3D (Stanway, 1990). There are 11 mature polypeptides with three main cleavage intermediates. UTR- Untranslated region; IRES- Internal ribosome entry site; VPg- Viral protein genome-linked (Lin et al, 2009). Processing of proteins The processing of proteins starts from the primary cleavage occurring between P1 and P2, mediated by viral protease 2A containing the cysteine nucleophile and it cleaves P1 and P2 leaving the viral polyprotein at cis. The P2 and the P3 precursors are separated from P1 region. For aphthovirus self cleavage takes place at the P1 domain region of the polyprotein by L proteinase at the cis whereas the L proteins in cardiovirus possess no proteolytic activity and hence in aphthovirus the cleavage of P1 is initiated by proteinase 3C. 2A proteinase also cleaves the cellular factors in entero and rhinovirus where eIF4G, a cap binding complex is cleaved and due to this even the there is a shut off in host translation. The L proteinase also cleaves eIF4G in aphtho virus during primary cleavage (Ryan and Flint,1997). There are four structural proteins in Picornavirus capsids such as VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4 where the VP4 protein is inside of the capsid. The VP4 proteins are formed by the cleavage of VP0 precursor, late during the assembly and are modified after translation by the covalent attachment of myristic acid at the amino terminus (Cann, 1997). Picornaviruses consist of three types of proteinase L, 2A and 3C. the aphtho or F M D V polyproteins are processed by more than one proteinase. The L proteinase are available in two forms Lb pro and Lab pro. L pro possess the same function as 2A proteinase of entero and rhinovirus which cleave the host cell protein eIF4G but the major difference between L pro and 2A is that the L pro cleave in between Gly479 and Arg470 residues whereas 2A cleave in between Arg486 and Gly487. Lb pro plays a major role in substrate binding and also in shut off host cell translation like that of 2A proteinase (Ryan and Flint,1997). 2A proteinase cleaves at its own N terminus and the primary cleavage is carried at the P1 capsid protein precursor. The nature of 2A proteinase is unclear and the sequence similarities led to the understanding that 2A pro catalytic triad composed of His20, Asp38 and also an active site nucleophile of cysteine. 2A pro can be inhibited by active thiol proteinases such as iodoacetamide and N-ethylmaleimide. 2A proteinase also inhibits the host cell protein synthesis which mediated the cleavage of eIF-4G, a 220K Da polypeptide but it was later understood that the 2A pro just initiated as an activating factor for another proteolytic activity to cleave eIF-4G. Generally 2A pro shuts off the host cell translation because eIF-4G deals with cap dependent mode of translation in host cell. In poliovirus, 2A acts a trans activator of translation at IRES when host cell is not imhibited. When 2A pro was mutated it led to loss of cleavage activity in trans but not in cis, and no replication of vira l RNA was seen hence this confirms that 2A pro is required for viral RNA replication. The aphtho and cardiovirus 2A proteinase show no sequence similarity to entero/rhino virus although 2A protease are similar in size. The primary cleavage of hepatovirus and echovirus does not take place by the cleavage of 2A proteinase and the 2A protein in hepatovirus and echovirus showed no proteolytic activity (Ryan and Flint,1997). 2B and its precursor 2BC is a viral protein consisting of two hydrophobic regions with ÃŽ ± amphipathic a-helix domains leading to the alteration of membranes in the infected cells. The virus induced vesicles are formed when 2B and its precursor 2BC enter into the host membrane of Golgi and ER complex by altering the permeability of plasma membrane to form virporin complex. Once the 2B and the precursor 2BC enters the host there is an imbalance in Ca2+ homeostatis mechanism and blocks protein transport from ER to Golgi and also initiates anti-apoptosis property. The 2B protein also blocks the activation of IRF-3 in Hepatitis A virus through which the cellular IFN-ÃŽ ² gene transcription is inhibited so that there is no harm to Hepatitis A virus in the host. (Lin et al, 2009). The vi ral RNA was anchored for the spatial arrangement required for replication by the 2C protein. The mutagenesis experiments confirmed that the 2C proteins are involved in strand separation of viral RNA while replication (Porter, 1993) Secondary cleavage: The secondary cleavage is carried out within the viral proteins and hence it is mediated by 3C proteinase which plays a very important role in protein processing and RNA replication. The replication proteins are generated within the P2 and P3 precursor proteins when 3C self cleaves at the P3 region of the polyprotein. 3C proteinase or the 3CD precursors cleaves the poly(A) binding protein to inhibit viral translation during late poliovirus infection. 3C also cleaves the host cell protein required for transcription. The key processing step for the viral protein processing cascade is initiated by 3C proteinase. The 3CD proteins also play a major role in carring out important functions during RNA replication (Bedard and Semler, 2004). The major function of 3C proteinase in secondary cleavages is that it process the capsid and the replicative protein precursors. The processing of capsid in poliovirus is done by 3CD proteinase and not 3C proteinase. The 3C proteins are also used to cleave various number of host cell proteins such as histone H3, transcription factor IIIC, TATA binding protein and microtubule-associated protein 4. The 3CD proteinase depends on the host cell protein EF-1 ÃŽ ± and the host cell factor is replaced by 3CD forming 3AB:3CD proteinase complex to bind at the 3 end of the poliovirus genome (Ryan and Flint, 1997). The 3A protein inhibits the cellular protein function and also presents the membrane proteins during viral infection. When the poliovirus 3A protein was mutated, the uridlylation of VPg was affected and also inhibited the viral RNAs plus strand initiation (Porter, 1993). 2B is a viral protein which is required for virion release by altering the cell membrane increasing permeability which is required for poliovirus RNA replication. 2C proteins and its precursor 2BC is necessary for the re-arrangement of intracellular membranes and also for the viral induced cytoplasmic vesicles. 2C binds with the minus strand of poliovirus RNA at the 3 non coding region and hence it plays a role in positive RNA viral strand synthesis and also in minus strand RNA synthesis. 3C and 3D protein helps in immune response interference and also in viral RNA replication. 3A protein is very much important because these proteins help the picornaviruses to escape from MHC-I ( Major histo compatability) expression and intracellular membrane transport by inhibiting both the MHC-I and intracellular membrane transport of the host cell. 3B protein also called as VPg is linked to the 5 end of both the positive and negative strand RNAs. 3AB, 3C, 3CD and 3D are required during the proces s of assembly in replication and also initiates viral RNA polymerase 3D and self cleavage of 3CD. 3C and 3D are involved in binding viral RNA, protein processing and RNA replication. The cloverleaf structure of poliovirus virus and coxsackievirus consist of stem loops in which the viral polymerase precursor, 3CD binds to the stem loop I. 3CD also binds with the host cell protein poly r(C) binding protein 2 (PCBP2) to help only in RNA replication. 3D is responsible for VPg uridylylation and RNA chain elongation while synthesising viral RNA because it contains RNA dependent polymerases and even tends for error prone and mis-incorporation of 1-2 nucleotides per replication (Bedard and Semler, 2004). VP1, VP2 and VP3 are the three larger capsid proteins folded into eight stranded antiparallel ÃŽ ² barrels and a small fourth protein called VP4 is located inside the capsid. The 3C protease cleaves VP3, VP1 and VP0 at the P1 region. The amino termini of VP0, VP3, VP1 initiates the assembly of the virion particle. VP0 peptides are cleaved into VP2 and VP4 at the final stage of processing and assembly. VP4 and VP2 are adjacent to each other at their ends when cleaved. The infection of the host is initiated when the capsid proteins bind to the receptor on the host membrane. ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule 1) is the receptor molecule for the major rhinovirus which binds the cell to adjacent substrates. Poliovirus receptor molecule is an integral membrane protein consisting of one variable and two constant domains and this receptor molecule attaches to the host cell to initiate replication process. The general receptors used by the various picornaviruses are poliovirus receptor f or poliovirus attachment, ICAM-1 receptor for major rhinovirus, LDL-R for minor group rhinovirus, CD55 or DAF receptor for some echoviruses and group B coxsackie B1-B6 receptors. A deep cleft known as canyon is formed by flanking the monomers, VP1, VP2 and VP3 which helps the virus to escape the immune response by the host cell. The interaction of capsid proteins with the intracellular host factors affects the induction of apoptosis (Lin et al, 2009). Host cell shut off mechanism The mRNA of picornavirus is uncapped and hence the translation takes place by directly introducing ribosomes at internal ribosome entry sites (IRES). The cleavage of eukaryotic translation initiation factor, eIF4G by 2A protease inhibits the cap dependent mRNA translation of the host cell. When poliovirus is introduced into the host it inhibits the host cell translation leading to apoptotic cell death. The eIFGII is more resistant to the infection of poliovirus than eIFGI. The death inducing proteins encoded by cellular mRNA were translated by cap independent translation leading to apoptotic death. The cleavage of eIF4GI by caspase 3 also induces apoptotic cell death but differs from poliovirus 2A protease process. Severe inhibition of translation leading to apoptosis is seen by both the caspase 3 activity and 2A protease. IRES elements in mRNAs encode proteins which regulate apoptotis. Even poly (A) protein and dystropin protein are also cleaved by 2A protease.. Hence, the cleavage of poly(A) binding protein by 2A protease cause apoptotis and the cleavage of dystrophin protein can induce apoptotic process due to cytoskeleton disruption (Goldstaub et al, 1999). The enterovirus 2B protein suppresses apoptotic pathway of the host cell by controlling intracellular Ca2+ homeostatis. The apoptotic responses are initiated by the 3C and 2A proteinase to inhibit cellular transcription and cap dependent translation. When the 2B proteins are suppressed by caspase-3 activation it leads to apoptotis (Campanella et al, 2004). The cellular mRNAs encode for the death inducing proteins which are translated by cap independent translation. When eIF4GI and eIF4GII are cleaved by 2A protease it leads to apoptotic death because it inhibits cap dependent translation. The 2A proteins also cleave the poly(A) binding protein and the dystropin protein which leads to apoptotis through a translational mechanism (Goldstaub et al, 2000). The eIFE is the component of cap binding complex of cap structure at 5 end of mRNA. The 40 S ribosomal subunit checks at the 5 non coding region until it finds the initiating codon or the the authentic start codon AUG and then sends a signal to the 60S to form a complex. For translation to occur in mRNA the 5 non coding region with the cap end should bind with the eIFE and once it binds to the cap the 40 S ribosomal subunit scans for the authentic initiation or start codon AUG and once it finds the AUG codon it gives a signal to 60 S ribosomal subunit to form a complex with 40 S and initiate the translation along with initiation factors (Bedard and Semler, 2004). In picornavirus the 5 end of mRNA in the non coding region is not capped and hence to initiate translation, the cap independent mechanism is required. Hence in picornavirus, the 40 S ribosomal subunit scans for ribonucleo protein complex at 5 non coding region and initiation take place to recognise authentic start codon. The eIF4G is cleaved by viral proteinase 3C and 2A which shuts off the host cell translation (cap dependent) and also cleaves poly(A) binding protein (PABP)and hence it inhibits the host cell translation. When the host cell is infected by Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), the eIF4G subunit which is responsible for the cap dependent translation of the host is cleaved by the L protein and for the Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV), the cap dependent translation of host is blocked by a repressor protein 4E-BP1 which binds at the 5 cap region and hence the repressor protein 4E-BP1 blocks the binding of eIF-4E which is the cap binding subunit and hence the host translation is shut off. The Hepatitis A virus (HAV) does not shut off the host translation because it requires eIF4G for its translation (Bedard and Semler, 2004). All picornavirus consist of internal ribosome entry site (IRES) and are mapped to the 5 non coding region. There are four types of IRES seen in picornaviruses based on the RNA secondary structures. The enterovirus and rhinovirus comes under the Type I IRES. Aphthovirus and cardiovirus comes under the Type II IRES and the Hepatitis virus comes under the Type III IRES. The porcine reschovirus comes under the Type IV elements. The IRES mediated translation is initiated by two factors Canonical initiation factors and IRES trans-activating factors. Canonical initiation factors to initiate IRES mediated translation: The IRES elements of poliovirus and EMCV are similar and require the initiation factors to be primed at the 40S ribosomal subunit. The IRES mediated translation is initiated by certain canonical factors such as eIF4G and eIF4B to bind to the viral RNA and also certain other subunits such as eIf3 and eIF2 to pre-bind to the 40 S ribosomal subunits. The IRES translation of poliovirus and EMCV is promoted by the poly(A) binding protein (Lin et al, 2009). Noncanonical initiation factors to initiate IRES mediated translation: The polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB) is a 57 KDa mRNA splicing factor which increases and promotes the activity of IRES in poliovirus. The molecular switching from translation to the replication of poliovirus is done by the proteolytic cleavage of PTB. The PTB also functions as RNA chaperon by stabilizing the type II IRES of FMDV and EMCV. Lupus autoantigen (La) is a 52 KDa of nuclear protein which binds to certain distinct parts of HAV IRES and with small interfering RNA and hence the HAV IRES translation and replication is suppressed. Poly(rC) binding protein (PCBP2)bind to the type I IRES of picornavirus and hence it leads to internal initiation of translation in type I IREs elements. The heterogenous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 (hnRNP A1) is an RNA binding protein which binds to the 5 UTR of HRV2 and regulates transcription (Lin et al, 2009). The picornavirus infection has lowered the level of host cell transcription and hence there is a increase in the number of viral RNA molecules. The nuclear localization signal (NLS) present in the poliovirus 3D protein targets the 3CD precursor to the nucleus for autocatalytic final maturation and allow the release of 3C protease (Bedard and Semler, 2004).) Picornavirus RNA replication: The new positive and negative strand viral RNA are synthesised by using the viral encoded RNA dependent RNA polymerase 3D. The RNA dependent RNA polymerase 3D acts as a protein primer and forms VPg-pU-pU which initiates the viral RNA replication and the process is known as VPg uridylylation. When VPg uridylylation is done, the poly(A) tract at the 3 end acts as an initiation site for the synthesis of negative strand RNA synthesis. The negative strand developed act as a template for the synthesis of new viral positive RNA strand by cap independent translation. Many or numerous copies of positive viral RNA strand can be synthesised from a single negative strand. In picornaviruses, there are numerous RNA sequences and secondary structures within the 5 non coding region which are essential for the RNA replication. The viral protein 3CD and the host protein, PCBP binds at the 5 cloverleaf structure of the non coding region. The cellular host protein PCBP binds to loop b and the 3CD binds to loop d of the 5 cloverleaf structure. A ternary complex is formed when 3CD and PCBP2 binds with the cloverleaf structure along with the viral RNA to form RNA replication. When PCBP2 was depleted, there was poor RNA synthesis in poliovirus and hence it was recognised that PCBP2 play a vital role in RNA replication. PABP is a cellular protein which binds to the poly(A) tract at the 3 end of viral RNA interact with 5 cloverleaf structure of PCBP2 and the viral protein 3CD. When the PABP at the 3 end interact with PCBP2 at the 5 end, the viral RNA may interact and hence there is an initiation of replication process. Even the 3AB and 3CD proteins interact at the 5 cloverleaf structure to each other there by initiating viral RNA replication. The cis-acting replication element (cre) was found within the coding region of picornavirus genomic RNA which is required for viral replication and viability. In aphthovirus the cre structure is at the non coding region of the 5 end. The cre sequence AAACA was found in the conserved hairpin structure at the coding region of picornaviruses required for RNA replication. The cre elements act as a binding site for viral replication proteins and also as a template for VPg uridylylation. At cre element, VPg is more efficient than at the poly(A) tract and uridylylation on cre structure leads to only positive strand RNA synthesis and for uridylylation and replication initiation of the minus strand uses the poly(A) tract. The interaction between 3CD with cre and cloverleaf RNA may arrange the viral RNA structurally for efficient RNA replication. The 3 NCR and the 3 poly(A) tract forms the site of replication for minus strand RNA synthesis. The poly(A) tract at the 3 end functions for virus viability, impart stability and also for the efficient RNA replication by interacting with viral RNA at the 5 end (Bedard and Semler, 2004). The negative strand is first formed by using the VPg protein primer and the VPg plays an important role in replication. The enzymatic activity of 3D polymerase has lead to VPg uridylylation which covalently couples with the tyrosine residue in the VPg protein. The 3 poly (A) tract template may also involve other host proteins for replication. The 2C bind at the 3 end the negative strand showing ATPase activity. The RNA polymerase 3D unwinds to develop viral RNA synthesis (Bedard and Semler, 2004).

Behavior Management of Exceptional Children

BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN: TRANSITION SERVICES Transition Services is defined by the 1997 Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) as a coordinated set of activities for a student, designated within an outcome-oriented process, which promotes movement from school to post-school activities including: post-secondary education, career training, adult services, independent living, community participation, and integrated employment (including supported employment. The coordinated set of activities shall be based upon the individual needs of each student, taking into consideration his/her preferences and interests. IEP goals and objectives are required for the following areas: * Instruction * Related Services * Community Experiences * Development of employment and other post-school adult living objectives * Daily living skills and functional vocational evaluation are required. â€Å"The importance of the transition specialist, or career education specia list, in the types of projects cannot be underestimated. The relationships these staff members maintain with the participants are crucial to the structure and success of these services†(Bullis and Cheney, 1999). Vocational Assessments Vocational Evaluation is a comprehensive process that systematically uses work activities, (either real or simulated), as the focal point for assessment of capabilities, vocational exploration and guidance. The purpose of vocational evaluation is to assist individuals in vocational development. Vocational evaluation incorporates medical, psychological, social, vocational, cultural, and economic data into the assessment process to determine realistic vocational areas. Transition Planning Transition planning begins at a very early age. It continues through each educational phase of the student's life, culminating with adult living. A continuum of services focuses upon a student's preparation for transition through participation in career awareness activities, career exploration, vocational training and employment. A continuum of Transition Services has been developed to serve as a guideline for transition planning. The continuum begins at preschool and ends at age 22. Transition planning is documented in the Individualized Education Program (IEP) beginning at age 14. â€Å"There is a lack of student and parent output, little documentation of transition plan specifics for each student, and IEP that were almost exclusively academically focused with no obvious links between goal/objectives and transition outcomes. Indeed, these weaknesses in the use of the IEP process and document planning for transition directly affect the implementation of transition services†(Collet-Klingenberg, L. L. , 1998). It is the responsibility of the IEP chairperson – usually the special education teacher – to arrange IEP / transition planning meetings for students at age 14 and older. The IEP notice to parents must include the following information: * The purpose of the IEP meeting is to develop / review the IEP and to consider Transition Services for inclusion into the IEP. * The student is invited to attend the IEP meeting. * Appropriate agency representatives have been identified and invited to the IEP / transition planning meeting. The IEP transition meeting must include all required IEP participants, plus two other representatives, as follows: * Parents or Legal Guardians * Special Education Teacher * Regular Education Teacher * Public Agency Representative (if appropriate) * Student * Other Individuals at the discretion of the parent or agency * Interpreter, when the parent or legal guardian is deaf or not proficient in the English language. * Career Education Teacher / Coordinator If the student does not attend the meeting, steps should be taken to ensure that his/her preferences and interests are considered. If an invited agency representative is unable to attend the meeting, other steps shall be taken to obtain participation. The IEP /Transition Planning meeting participants will provide input for expected outcomes. The following questions may be discussed. * What are the interest, preferences, and goals of the student after graduating or exiting school? * What support would be required to reach post-secondary goals? * Will the student be referred to an adult agency? * What type of adult agency service(s) is needed after graduation, if any? Who will be responsible for the referral(s) (i. e. special education teacher, the school based staff, parent, student, others? * Who will follow-up to ensure that the linkage between the school and adult agency(ies) was established? The IEP Team will develop transition goals and objectives that focus on the desired adult outcomes (long range transition goals). Students' preferences, strengths and limitations, career / vocational skills development, n eeded support services, job availability, medical and transportation requirements are also considered. Parents' expectations of desired student outcomes should be obtained and considered. What exactly is the Transition Plan? The Transition Plan is a part of the IEP. It includes long-range transition goals, indicating the students' preferences and interests after exiting school, are identified. â€Å"The skills needed to be successful in post secondary educational and vocational; settings, such as self-awareness, awareness of appropriate career options, and the ability to engage in self-advocacy when necessary, takes many years to develop† (Janiga,s. , J. ; Costenbader, V. 2002). Transition Services needed to achieve the long-range goals are determined. Agencies involved in transition planning while the student is still in school should be identified. That involvement is considered â€Å"agency linkages†. Transition goals and objectives are written. Agency responsibilities should be recorded in the IEP on the Transition Plan. Transition activities (objectives), persons re sponsible for the activities, and timelines are recorded. If an agency fails to fulfill its responsibilities, the IEP Team must reconvene to identify alternative strategies. Transition plans are reviewed, discussed and developed annually. The special education teacher, who completes the Transition Checklist, maintains a summary of transition planning. The Transition Checklist is reviewed and updated annually at the IEP meeting. A copy of the Transition Checklist is provided to the parent / guardian for further reference and planning. To assist in the development of transition plans at the IEP meeting Guidelines for transition services agenda is used. The guidelines outline what should be done before, during and after the IEP meeting. Records Keeping The special education teacher maintains a portfolio for each student, beginning at age 14, or grade 9. The portfolio documents a collection of evidence of the student's skills, abilities, and employment competencies (see your school's Special Education Coordinator or your school-based Transition Coordinator to obtain the portfolio). The student is responsible for participation in the development and maintenance of his / her transition portfolio. Portfolios are maintained as documentation of transition services activities. Adult Agencies An adult agency representative can attend IEP / Transition meetings for students who are 16 years of age, or in the 11th grade, and thereafter, if considered necessary by the IEP Team. An agency representative may attend IEP / Transition meetings for student's age 14 or younger, if considered necessary by the IEP Team. Some students will move from school to adult life requiring little or no more involvement with adult agencies than their non-disabled peers. Examples of such agencies or services are community colleges, vocational technological schools, other post-secondary educational institutions and the military. Other students may require time-limited adult services, such as the Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA). There are also students who will need ongoing support from adult agencies such as the Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Administration (MRDDA). The IEP Team will determine which services may be appropriate for such students. Adult agencies may include, but are not limited to, the following: * Rehabilitation Service Administration Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Administration * Commission on Mental Health Services * Others Private agencies representation may be invited by parent / guardian or student of appropriate: * College / Community College * Vocational Technical Schools * Adult Education Services/ Training * Armed Forces * Others Transportation for Special Education Transport ation is a related service for special education students when it is necessary in order for a student with a disability to participate in an appropriate educational program. The Multi-Disciplinary Team (MDT) makes individual decisions about transportation during the development of the Individualized Education Program (IEP) and placement. The MDT must consider the following: * Determine a need for specialized transportation and reflect the need in the student's IEP * Review the student's need for transportation at any IEP review * Qualifications for transportation include the following: * Limited sensory or physical endurance Significantly reduced intellectual development; and/or reduced problem solving skills Parents must do the following in order for transportation to be provided for their children: * Provide accurate address information to the Division of Special Education and ensure that it is updated if necessary during the school year * Call your child's principal of any address changes during the school year. It can take 3 to 10 school days to make transportation changes during the school year * Have your child ready when the bus arrives in the mor ning * Meet the school bus in the afternoon. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bullis, M. , ; Cheney, D. (1999). Vocational and Transition Interventions for Adolescents and Young Adults with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders. Focus on Exceptional Children, 7, 1-24. Collet-Klingenberg, L. L. , (1998). The Reality of Best Practices in Transition: A Case Study. Exceptional Children, 1, 67-78. Janiga, S. , J. ; Costenbader, V. , (2002). The transition from High School to Postsecondary Education for students with Learning disabilities: A Survey of College Service Coordinators. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 5, 462-8, 479.

A History of Flag-Burning and Flag Desecration Laws in the U.S.

Flag-burning is a potent symbol of protest in the United States, conveying sharp criticism of the state and stirring a deeply emotional, nearly religious fury in many of its citizens. It treads one of the most difficult lines in U.S. politics, between the love of the countrys most cherished symbol and the freedom of speech protected under its Constitution. But flag-burning or desecration isnt unique to the 21st century. It first became an issue in the U.S. during the Civil War. After the war, many felt that the trademark value of the American flag was threatened on at least two fronts: once by the preference of white Southerners for the Confederate flag, and again by the tendency of businesses to use the American flag as a standard advertising logo. Forty-eight states passed laws banning flag desecration to respond to this perceived threat.  Heres a timeline of events. History of Flag Burning Chronology Most early flag desecration statutes prohibited marking or otherwise defacing a flag design, as well as using the flag in commercial advertising or showing contempt for the flag in any way. Contempt was taken to mean publicly burning it, trampling on it, spitting on it, or otherwise showing a lack of respect for it. 1862: During the Civil War-era Union occupation of New Orleans, resident William B. Mumford (1819–1862) is hanged for tearing down a U.S. flag, dragging it through the mud, and tearing it to shreds. 1907: Two Nebraska businesses are fined $50 apiece for selling bottles of Stars and Stripes brand beer, a violation of Nebraska state flag desecration law. In  Halter v. Nebraska, the U.S. Supreme Court finds that even though the flag is a federal symbol, states have the right to create and enforce local laws. 1918: Montanan Ernest V. Starr (born 1870) is arrested, tried, convicted, and sentenced to 10–20 years of hard labor for failing to kiss the flag, calling it a piece of cotton with a little bit of paint. 1942: The Federal Flag Code, which provided uniform guidelines for the proper display and respect shown to the flag, is approved by Franklin Roosevelt. The Vietnam War Many antiwar protests occurred in the last years of the Vietnam War (1956–1975), and many of them included incidents of the flag being burned, decorated with peace symbols, and worn as clothing. The Supreme Court only agreed to hear three of the numerous cases. 1966: Civil rights activist and World War II veteran Sidney Street burns a flag at a New York intersection in protest against the shooting of civil rights activist James Meredith. Street is prosecuted under New Yorks desecration law for defy(ing) the flag. In 1969, the Supreme Court overturned Streets conviction (Street vs. New York) by ruling that verbal disparagement of the flag—one of the reasons for Streets arrest—is protected by the First Amendment, but it didnt directly address the issue of flag-burning. 1968: Congress passes the Federal Flag Desecration Law in  1968 in response to a Central Park event in which peace activists burned American flags in protest of the Vietnam War. The law bans any display of contempt  directed against the flag but doesnt address the other issues dealt with by the state flag desecration laws. 1972: Valerie Goguen, a teenager from Massachusetts, is arrested for wearing a small flag on the seat of his pants and is sentenced to six months in jail for contempt of the flag. In Goguen v. Smith, the Supreme Court ruled that laws that ban contempt of the flag are unconstitutionally vague and that they violate the First Amendments free speech protections. 1974: Seattle college student Harold Spence is arrested for hanging a flag upside down and decorated with peace symbols outside his apartment.  The Supreme Court ruled in  Spence v. Washington  that affixing peace sign stickers to a flag is a form of constitutionally-protected speech. Court Reversals in the 1980s Most states revised their flag desecration laws in the late 1970s and early 1980s to meet the standards set in Street, Smith, and Spence. The Supreme Court decision in Texas v. Johnson would ramp up citizen outrage. 1984: Activist Gregory Lee Johnson burns a flag in protest against President Ronald Reagans policies outside the Republican National Convention in Dallas in 1984. He is arrested under Texas flag desecration statute. The Supreme Court struck down flag desecration laws in 48 states in its 5-4 Texas v. Johnson  ruling, stating that flag desecration is a constitutionally protected form of free speech. 1989–1990: The U.S. Congress protests the Johnson decision by passing the Flag Protection Act in 1989, a federal version of the already-struck state flag desecration statutes. Thousands of citizens burn flags in protest of the new law, and the Supreme Court affirmed its previous ruling and struck down the federal statute when two protesters were arrested. A Constitutional Amendment Between 1990 and 1999, dozens of flag desecration events were subject to formal actions by criminal justice systems, but the Johnson decision prevailed. 1990–2006: Congress makes seven attempts to overrule the U.S. Supreme Court by passing a constitutional amendment  that would make an exception to the First Amendment. Had it passed, it would have allowed the government to ban flag desecration.  When the amendment was first brought up in 1990, it failed to achieve the necessary two-thirds majority in the House. In 1991, the amendment passed in the House overwhelmingly but was defeated in the Senate. The last attempt was in 2006, in which the Senate failed to confirm the amendment by one vote. Flag Desecration and Laws Quotations Justice Robert Jackson  from his  majority opinion  in  West Virginia v. Barnette  (1943), which struck down a law requiring schoolchildren to salute the flag:   The case is made difficult not because the principles of its decision are obscure but because the flag involved is our own...But freedom to differ is not limited to things that do not matter much. That would be a mere shadow of freedom. The test of its substance is the right to differ as to things that touch the heart of the existing order.If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. Justice William J. Brennan  from his 1989  majority opinion in  Texas v. Johnson: We can imagine no more appropriate response to burning a flag than waving ones own, no better way to counter a flag burners message than by saluting the flag that burns, no surer means of preserving the dignity even of the flag that burned than by—as one witness here did—according its remains a respectful burial.We do not consecrate the flag by punishing its desecration, for in doing so we dilute the freedom that this cherished emblem represents. Justice John Paul Stevens from his dissent in  Texas v. Johnson  (1989):   The ideas of liberty and equality have been an irresistible force in motivating leaders like Patrick Henry,  Susan B. Anthony, and  Abraham Lincoln, schoolteachers like Nathan Hale and Booker T. Washington, the Philippine Scouts who fought at Bataan, and the soldiers who scaled the bluff at Omaha Beach. If those ideas are worth fighting for—and our history demonstrates that they are—it cannot be true that the flag that uniquely symbolizes their power is not itself worthy of protection from unnecessary desecration. In 2015, Justice Antonin Scalia explained why he cast the deciding vote in Johnson: If it were up to me, I would put in jail every sandal-wearing, scruffy-bearded weirdo who burns the American flag. But I am not king. Sources and Further Reading Goldstein, Robert Justin. Saving Old Glory: The History Of The American Flag Desecration Controversy. New York: Westview Press, 1995.  Rosen, Jeff. Was the Flag Burning Amendment Unconstitutional? Yale Law Journal 100 (1991): 1073–92.Testi, Arnaldo. Capture the Flag: The Stars and Stripes in American History. New York: New York University Press, 2010.Welch, Michael. Flag Burning: Moral Panic and the Criminalization of Protest. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2000.

Psychoanalytic Theory Of Sigmund Freud - 824 Words

Week 3 Essay First or Foundation A Look into the Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud David Haygood Talladega College Applied Psychology 202 7/7/2017 Abstract The psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud has always been argued to be one of the most controversial theories in the school of psychology. Critics have questioned how relevant the perspective of Freud is due to the fact that it holds no scientific basis. Sigmund Freuds psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This theory, known as Freuds structural theory of personality, places great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological†¦show more content†¦Even though Freuds family had limited finances and were forced to live in a crowded apartment, his parents made every effort to foster his obvious intellectual capacities. In 1881 Freud received his doctorate and started work under Jean-Martin Charcot (Rana 97). Freud practiced and observed hypnosis as a clinical technique, and began to formulate the beginnings of his theory on the mind. There were no unusual aspects to Freuds childhood that seem to guide him in his rationing of thinking for his theories. Freuds parents realized that he would be a scholarly child and tried to accommodate him with a solid education. Freud believed that the human personality consisted of three interworking parts: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id, the largest part of the mind, is related to desires and impulses and is the main source of basic biological needs. The ego is related to reasoning and is the conscious, rational part of the personality; it monitors behavior in order to satisfy basic desires without suffering negative consequences (Boundless.com). The superego, or conscience, develops through interactions with others (mainly parents) who want the child to conform to the norms of society (Boundless.com). Freud believed that our adult lives were shaped by childhood experiences, meaning that if children did not receive the proper nurturing, that the child would be stuck in that stage or behaviorsShow MoreRelatedSigmund Freud s Psychoanalytic Theory Of Identity1542 Words   |  7 PagesSigmund Freud s psychoanalytic hypothesis of identity, identity is made out of three components. The three components of identity are known as the id, the ego, and the superego. They cooperate to make complex human practices. The id is the main part of identity that is available from birth. This part of identity is totally oblivious and incorporates of the intuitive and primitive practices. 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